Introduction
A multitude of factors may exert influence on a person’s dietary patterns and
eating behavior. This may include social, cultural and even economic
factors. Of all these factors, the impact of culture on eating behavior
and eating disorder has been the subject of many studies. The theory is
that culture is one of the more important factors that affect a person’s eating
behavior and even eating disorder. Research, however, is scarce on just
how culture impacts a person’s eating behavior. This essay seeks to
examine the impact of culture in the development of eating disorder. The
objective is to prove that while cultural groups are susceptible to developing
eating disorders, there are cultural groups which share similar values and
attitudes that give them certain degree of protection against eating disorders.
Traditional Understanding of Eating
Behavior and Development of Eating Disorder
Traditionally, eating behavior, body image perceptions eating disorders were
believed to exist exclusively as part of the Western culture, particularly
among white upper class women (Bridgette Sloan, p.3). Since Western
culture values thinness in body appearance, dieting has become a $50 billion
industry in the United States.
Companies advertising their products have used thinness as a symbolism for
self-discipline, control, sexual liberation, assertiveness, competitiveness and
even relationship with the social elite. As a result of this
preoccupation with thinness, dieting and in extreme cases, eating disorders
have become the norm and a socially accepted behavior in the West.
Since eating disorder is common in Western countries, most research were
focused on white women and treatment was also exclusive for white women.
To a certain extent, the susceptibility to eating disorders of people other
than those in Western countries has not been given much attention (Kathy Bunch,
2001, p.1). Many people think that African-Americans, Latinos, or Asians
are not susceptible to eating disorder.
Recently, however, some researchers argue that eating behavior and eating
disorder are not problems exclusive to any particular culture. In fact,
there are findings which say that different cultural groups and ethnic
minorities residing in the United States
exhibit a pattern of eating behavior and eating disorder. These
researchers have realized that disturbed eating behaviors and attitudes are not
restricted to white middle class women but even to ethnic minorities in the United
States. According to recent epidemiological
studies, obesity is now becoming more common among African-American and Latina
women than white women (Lisa Sanchez-Johnsen, Maureen Dymek and John Alverdy,
2003, p.1). Others conclude that boys and girls of all ethnic groups are
susceptible to eating disorders, to wit:
Girls and boys from
all ethnic and racial groups may suffer from eating disorders and disordered
eating. The specific nature of the most common eating problems, as well as risk
and protective factors, may vary from group to group but no population is
exempt. Research findings regarding prevalence rates and specific types of
problems among particular groups are limited, but it is evident that disturbed
eating behaviors and attitudes occur across all cultures. (“At Risk: All
Ethnic and Racial Groups,” 2004, p.1).
Research material on the impact of culture on eating behavior and eating
disorder among different groups residing in the US
is scarce. Moreover, there is a more limited resource material for
dietary patterns among cultural groups living outside the United
States. The conclusion of some research
materials are even conflicting as some conclude that maladaptive eating
behavior appear to be less among individuals living outside the United States.
On the other hand, there are some who conclude that eating disorders are
becoming more widespread in Spain,
South Africa, Mexico,
India, China,
Hongkong, Singapore,
Thailand and Japan.
The conflicting conclusions suggest that more research must be done to arrive
at a consensus on the impact of culture on a society’s eating behavior and
eating disorder.
The Tripartite Model
Culture is considered as one of the more important influence in the development
of eating disorder. This influence is so vast and pervasive that it
affects any person regardless of the color of his skin, his sex, social status
or even his age. Charlotte N. Markey explains using his Tripartite Model
how culture is linked to eating disorder or disordered eating. First, the
transmission of eating patterns from one generation to the next including food
preferences and restrictive practices may lead to the adoption of healthy and unhealthy
eating behaviors. Second, research suggests that values regarding
physical appearance are in part culturally determined. Third, health and
illness are socially and culturally constructed that it would not be possible
to think of health and well-being outside the context of a person’s culture.
Socialization and Eating Disorder
One of the manifestations of culture can be found in how family socialize with
one another. The family is still the most effective mechanism through
which culture is learned ad acquired. Family members share and transmit,
consciously or unconsciously, to one another certain behavior – this includes
eating behavior. Thus, it is considered that eating socialization is
considered one of the manifestations of how powerful cultural influences are.
For example, while there are many other variables and factors that can affect a
child’s eating behavior, the role that parents play and their child feeding
practices are considered one of the strongest contributory factors for eating
behavior and even eating disorder.
According to research conducted by Darcy L. Johannsen (2006), parents typically
exercise two primary aspects of control over their children (Darsy L.
Johannsen, 2006, p.1). The first is restriction which pertains to the act
of a parent in restricting the child’s access to junk foods and restricting the
total amount of food. The second is pressure which involves the act of a
parent in pressuring children to eat healthy foods and pressuring them to eat
in general. While these are desired goals, the means in achieving these
goals have frequently led to undesired result. For example, when parents
want their children to eat fish and vegetables they would usually resort to
bribery or reward system by offering the child unhealthy food such as fries,
burgers or even carbonated drinks. The adverse effect of this strategy is
that this may lead to increased desire for and over-consumption of unhealthy
and restricted food instead of liking the healthy foods. Thus, children
have the tendency to eat unhealthy foods not because they actually desire it
but because it is given as a reward for something that is done. The
parental control in pressuring children to eat healthy foods has an adverse
impact on them as it leads to decreased preferences among children in these
foods. On the other hand, parental restriction on access to junk and
unhealthy food may even lead to the children desiring these foods even more and
consuming them more after the parents stop monitoring their children. As
a result, family socialization as one of the aspects of culture, facilitate the
adoption of eating behavior and may contribute to eating disorder.
Cultural Influence on Body Image
Ideals
A person’s perceptions of his body, his/her concept of an ideal body image and
dissatisfaction towards his/her body are factors that can lead to the
development of eating disorders. An ideal body image is the sum total of
a person’s perceptions, attitudes and values about his/her body. In
simple terms, it is the way a person perceives his weight, body size and
appearance. This concept of an ideal body image is very important because
in some cases a person’s self-esteem is closely connected to a person’s body
image. Oftentimes, the more a person is dissatisfied about his body
image, the more he is likely to have eating disorders. According to
studies, body dissatisfaction has been found to be closely connected to
dieting, binge eating, purging, excessive laxative use, and cessation of all
eating (Cortney S. Warren, 2005, p.241).
Several studies have been made on the reasons why some persons appear to be
dissatisfied with their body image. One of the most often cited reasons
is the cultural emphasis on thinness as an integral part to attractiveness
which is widely prevalent in the Western countries. Women in Western
countries agree that in Western culture appearance is central and integral on a
person’s value and role in society. The ideal is that a person who is fit
and has a thin body is assured of success and life satisfaction. Western
culture also emphasizes that a thin body is attainable and is the norm.
The concept of what should be the ideal body measurement is further reinforced
by the mass media such as the television and magazine which the people seek for
advice on fashion trends. Thus, Western culture and mass media both
operate to create what should be considered as an ideal body size for women.
The reality however is that not all
women have body weight and size similar to that being portrayed by the mass
media. Not all are as blessed with shapely figures and fantastic legs.
As a result, more women in Western countries tend to be dissatisfied with their
body. Because women tend to compare themselves to the ideal female which
is artificially created by culture and mass media, they eventually realize that
not everyone can meet this cultural expectation. This leads to
dissatisfaction. Dissatisfaction leads to low self-esteem. This was
confirmed and corroborated by 25 experimental studies that examined the effect
of viewing thinness-idealizing media on women’s body image where the
participants were found to have become more dissatisfied with their bodies
after viewing thin models than after viewing average-sized models.
However, not all women are
predisposed to developing eating disorder. While culture may be a
powerful contributor to a person’s eating disorder, culture may also serve as a
protection against eating disorder. While it may be true that there are
some cultures which are predisposed to eating disorder, there are some which
help provide protection to avoid eating disorder. It s possible
that some ethnic groups may, despite Western influence, be shielded from eating
disorders. Instead, they may prefer more realistic and attainable
physical ideals. It is also possible that other cultures may place lesser
value on physical appearance as a manifestation of self worth. Other
culture may even consider that physical appearance has no relation to a
person’s success or role in the society.
For example, while Mexicans are as
predisposed to suffer eating disorder just like those in Western countries,
statistically speaking, they are less likely to have poor self-image that can
eventually lead to eating disorder. Mexican culture, by tradition,
idealizes a larger and curvy physique. Mexican culture likewise values
close family relationships, interdependence, and social interaction.
While those who have a mix of Mexican American culture may be aware of the
glorification of thin body among Americans, they are protected against the
possibility that they will internalize this concept of a thin body as an ideal
body image and suffer from body dissatisfaction. They may also be
protected from the idea that a person’s appearance is tied to his self-worth.
Cultural Influence on Health and
Illness
Studies say that objectively speaking, Americans are healthier nowadays than
they use to be. Americans have longer life expectancy. In addition,
medicines are available now for just about any sickness known to man.
Technology has also improved which have contributed to the improvement of a
person’s quality of life and well-being (DiMattero & Martin, 2002).
Yet, subjectively more Americans feel they are sick. More Americans have
been reported to be dissatisfied with their health and have sought medical
attention despite the fact that medical findings say that they are well. The
reason for this is that illness is a state when an individual feels ill and
behaves in a particular way. It is therefore a psychological concept
which has a different meaning for different people. The same is true for
a person’s health. Health is not a medical concept but a psychological
concept which is based on a person’s individual and personal evaluation of his
body state and ability to function.
The difference in the understanding of health and illness and even treatment is
also rooted in cultural differences. For example, Eastern culture treats
diseases and illness by restoring balance and harmony in a person’s body.
Some of the most common forms of treatment in the East are use of herbal drugs,
acupuncture and massage. Western culture, however, emphasizes on use of
drugs and surgery to treat diseases. Culture also exerts influence in the
recognition of what constitutes illness in a person. Thus, it is possible
that a particular culture may not consider eating disorder as an illness or a
disease and take it for granted. In some culture, eating disorder may be
considered as a serious illness which may require immediate medical attention.
In these situations some people who may already have eating disorder may not
get the appropriate treatment necessary. Thus, cultural influence helps
in defining when a person is healthy or ill or when a person needs medical
treatment or not.
Multi-Cultural Issues and Eating
Disorders
The Tripartite Model reveals that how culture is inextricably linked to a
variety of eating behavior and the development of eating disorder. The
family socialization especially in how the parents restrict their children’s
access to unhealthy foods or in how the parents pressure their children to eat
healthy foods may have an adverse effect on their children leading to the
development of eating disorder. A person’s body image and perceptions
about his own body are also influenced by his culture. Our concepts of
health and illness and even treatment are also influenced by our culture.
Considering these factors, it can be said that every cultural and ethnic group
are susceptible to developing eating disorder. Applying the Tripartite
Model, there are so many ways by which a person can develop eating problems.
It could be because of poor upbringing and feeding patterns on the part of
their parents. Any parent in his desire to encourage his children to stay
away from unhealthy foods may commit a mistake and unconsciously may even be
encouraging his children to eat unhealthy foods. Poor upbringing of
children and poor feeding patterns are not problems common only to Western
culture. These problems are also common among Asians, Hispanics,
African-Americans, and even Middle Easterners.
Even if family socialization has helped in developing excellent eating
behavior, poor self-image may have harmful effect on the individual’s eating
behavior that may lead to eating disorder. For example, as earlier stated
while Hispanic women can also have eating disorders, they are less likely to
have this problem. This is because Mexican culture does not emphasize
individualism but interdependence. It emphasizes that a person should not
be stigmatized and judged if he has weight problems.
A person’s values may also help in avoiding eating disorder problems.
This is particularly true of Asian values of loyalty to family and deference to
authority. While it may be true that because of globalization more women
from different parts of the world are developing insecurities about their
bodies, Asian women are considered to be less likely to develop eating
disorders. The family is important for Asian women. Most often,
they would consult their parents and listen to their advice. They would
much rather share their problem to their family members instead of solving the
problems on her own. This helps Asian women better cope with their problems as
opposed to women in Western countries who are individualistic and would rather
prefer to solve their problems on their own.
The culture of African American women are also protects them against eating
disorder. Studies show that African American women prefer larger body
shapes compared to Caucasian women. It was also reported that they have
greater satisfaction with their bodies compared to Caucasian women.
According to Jacquelyn Eckern (2009), “African American women who take pride in
their cultural heritage are more likely to refer to the more liberal body ideal
of their race when evaluating their own body.” This attitude helps
African American women to maintain a more positive body image that is not
otherwise present among Caucasian women. Thus, they are less likely to
develop eating disorders. The important concern, however, are those
African-American women who closely identify themselves with the European
American women.
Conclusion
The widespread and pervasive influence of culture makes it one of the most
important contributory factors in the development of eating disorder.
While every cultural group is susceptible, not all cultural groups is affected
the same way. There are cultural groups which share similar attitude and
values that make them more likely to develop eating behaviors. These
cultural groups are women in Western countries who have relatively poor
self-image and who identify success with the size of their hips. There
are those cultural groups, however, who are less likely to develop eating
disorders in view of their strong family ties, have preference for bigger body
shapes, and who have strong relationship with the people around him.
These cultural groups are Hispanic women, Asian women and African-American
women.
